Economic prosperity came with industry. Antwerp was the principal port of the Low Countries; Bruges was declining; Amsterdam was developing. 1505-1555, Charles of Austria, the future Charles V, born and brought up at Ghent, was the ruler, his aunt, Margaret of Austria was regent (d. 1530), followed by Mary of Hungary (d. 1558). In 1548-49, the Federation of the Seventeen Provinces was established with Brussels as the capital. 1555-1598, Philip II of Spain was the ruler, 1559-1567, his sister Margaret of Parma the regent. A movement of emancipation was connected with the religious crisis (1563, the revolt of the "Gueux"); 1567-1573, represssion by the Duke of Alba; 1576, the sack of Antwerp. In 1584-1585, a split occurred between the 10 provinces of the south (Flanders) which remained Spanish, and the republic of the United Provinces of the north (Holland) which was henceforth autonomous.

Religious struggles were grave. Calvinism increased (1535-1585); Cardinal Granvelle called upon the Inquisition (1559); destruction of the churches, 1566-1572; iconoclasm, especially in Holland. Flanders, faithful to the Roman Church, broke away from Protestant Holland (Utrecht, centre of resistance to Catholicism).

Culture and humanism spread. Jean le Maire was at the court of Mechelen about 1500-1512. Under the aegis of Erasmus of Rotterdam (1467-1536) humanist coteries were created at Louvain, at Antwerp, at Deventer, at Utrecht, at Leyden.

Schools of rhetoric fluorished. Poetry of the Gueux water-beggars, H. Marnix (1538-1598). The greatest scholars were geographers: 1569, projection by G. Mercator; 1570, the first geographical atlas by A. Ortelius (d. 1598). Writings on art were important: treatise on architecture by P. Coecke van Aelst, 1539; H. Vredeman de Vries, 1577; "Lives of the Painters" by Carel van Mander (Haarlem, 1604).

Music of the north spread to Italy and the European courts (Orlando Lasso, etc.), J. P. Sweelinck (1562-1621) organist at Amsterdam.